An interactive course

Valence

Electrons arrange themselves inside atoms by one rule: find the lowest energy available. This site builds that rule from scratch, then uses it to derive the periodic table and explain why atoms bond.

prerequisites: protons, neutrons, electrons. that's all.

Chapters
01

Where electrons live

The orbiting-planet picture of the atom collapses in ten picoseconds. What replaces it: standing waves, quantized energies, and electron clouds you can rotate with your mouse.

standing waves orbitals 3D viewer
02

The filling order

With many electrons, three seating rules decide who goes where. Watch the energy ladder's rungs drift and cross as the nucleus grows, and see exactly why 4s fills before 3d.

aufbau shielding the 4s/3d crossing
03

The table is a map

The periodic table's odd shape is the filling order made visible. Build it row by row, then watch one number, the pull felt by outer electrons, drive every trend across it.

blocks valence trends
04

One continuum, not three bonds

Covalent, polar, ionic: textbooks present three kinds of bond. There is one, with a dial. Drag the tug-of-war and morph a shared electron cloud into a full transfer.

energy well electronegativity NaCl lattice
05

Building molecules

Valence electrons become a notation, the notation becomes a tool. Assemble real molecules dot by dot, with the octet rule checking your work.

lewis structures octet builder
v2

Shapes & stickiness

Why molecules take 3D shapes (electron domains shoving each other), and why water is so strange (hydrogen bonding). Coming next.

vsepr hydrogen bonds